Stories in this Issue
Energy for America
Getting a grip
Plants with a punch
Revitalizing old ways with wood
When it rains, it pours
NRRI unveils improved Web site
It’s recently become painfully clear. The United States, like other developed nations, is vulnerable when energy supplies fluctuate. Developing options to conventional fuels has become obviously important, but there’s more—concerns over carbon dioxide emissions, economic security and global politics. The energy situation is one symptom of a broader set of issues here in Minnesota and across the U.S.
NRRI is looking at the big picture and seeking real solutions. This special feature will focus on enhancing energy security through technology diversification while addressing environmental issues. We want to sharpen the technological discussion about which actions make the most sense for the future.
Of the 85 million barrels of oil consumed world-wide, one-fourth is consumed by the U.S. The Middle East, with the OPEC countries, produce slightly more than a third of the world’s supply. The expanding economies of India and China are expected to push demand even further. By 2030, worldwide consumption of oil is expected to increase to 106 million barrels per day—25 percent over current levels. Meeting this demand requires maximizing production of the current oil fields, investment in recently discovered oil deposits (including tar sands and oil shale), as well as continued investment and exploration of new sources of oil.
There is enough oil to meet the expected demand for the next 40 years, according to analyses of oil and natural gas resources by the International Energy Agency. However, as the report further states, “The world’s energy system is at a crossroads. Current global trends in energy supply and consumption are patently unsustainable— environmentally, economically and socially.” A relatively small imbalance in supply and demand can lead to rapid price increases. Our energy choices also need to reflect concerns about greenhouse gas generation and climate change.
So the important question isn’t “are we running out of oil?” but rather “how can we avoid the upheaval that occurs on our way there?”
The U.S. produces only one-third of its oil domestically. The single largest source of imported oil is from Canada followed by Saudi Arabia, Mexico and Venezuela. Many policy analysts worry that constrained energy supplies could increase the political strength and economic leverage of governments unfriendly to the U.S. This issue, as well as the environmental benefits of alternate fuels, has brought together strange bedfellows, such as the Natural Resources Defense Fund and former CIA Director, James Woolsey.
“If we want to end dependence on the whims of OPEC’s despots, the substantial instabilities of the Middle East, and the indignity of paying for both sides in the War on Terror, we must define oil ‘independence’ sensibly — as doing whatever is necessary to avoid oil being the instrument of despotic leverage and foreign chaos.” – James Woolsey, former CIA Director In today’s world, transportation is a fundamental necessity for working individuals. During last summer’s oil price peak, the U.S. was exporting about $700 billion annually. Put another way, oil imports accounted for 15 percent of all household pre-tax income. The difference between $4.00 per gallon of gas and today’s $1.70 per gallon is $1,610 per year or $134 per month. This fluctuation can be especially devastating to lower wage earners.
There is good news on the horizon. Most of the domestic alternative energy development is expected to be distributed across the landscape in the form of alternative energy production facilities. Thus, dollars retained in the U.S. will revitalize the rural areas of the country and stabilize prices.
The U.S. is often referred to as the “Saudi Arabia” of coal. Coal reserves are expected to last 300 years, at the current rate of consumption. However, demand for coal could increase as higher oil prices drive the country toward greater reliance on liquid fuels produced from coal. If all of the domestic demand for gasoline were to be supplied by coal-to-liquids technology, the demand for coal would double. However, coal use is a key source of environmental pollutants. Various industrial control devices have been installed at coal-fired plants to control emissions of sulfurous and nitrous oxides, as well as mercury.
Currently, interest in carbon sequestration technologies is growing but the research is still in its infancy. While these technologies hold some promise, there are challenges in determining opportunities and methods to effectively store carbon dioxide and ultimate production costs. At this time, there is little interest by government or industry to increase production of electricity using coal. To the contrary, increases in electrical generation are primarily based on wind or biomass.
An immediate option is wind power. Minnesota ranks fourth in the country in developing wind energy, behind Texas, California and Iowa. Expansion is occurring rapidly with wind generation capacity of 1,500 megawatts either installed or under construction in the state, the majority in southwestern Minnesota. The “25 x 25” legislation set targets to achieve 25 percent of the electrical generation in Minnesota with renewable sources by 2025.
Electrical utilities like Minnesota Power and Xcel Energy are actively pursuing wind generation.
Wind’s primary advantage is that once the initial cost of construction is accounted for, wind is free and the potential for future fluctuations in cost is zero. Wind speeds, however, fluctuate considerably on any given day and season, so integrating wind generation with existing capacity is important. Power generation must run at a steady rate, not just when the wind blows.
A study by the Department of Commerce shows that integration of wind power with the electrical grid at a penetration rate of 15 percent resulted in little impacts to the overall system due to many factors, especially given that wind farms are spread over a large geographic area and wind fluctuations are averaged out. The U.S. Department of Energy estimates that wind power could supply up to 20 percent of the nation’s electrical needs in the future. Undoubtedly, wind will continue to play a significant role and represents one of the most immediate, near-term options to increase production of alternate energy.
A variety of research is underway to determine the best way to store energy generated from wind so that the intermittent nature of this source can be greatly reduced. NRRI will be involved with research in this area in the near future when a wind turbine is installed at our research facility in Coleraine, Minn. NRRI’s Center for Water and the Environment is also active in understanding the best sites for wind turbines to minimize harm to migrating birds and bats.
In the long run, biomass could be a significant energy source. In the case of energy, biomass refers to plant material—either woody or herbaceous—that can be combusted or converted into useable energy (various waste products from animals and municipal trash also fall into this category). Corn stalks, corn cobs, wheat straw and trees are among the agricultural- and forest-derived sources. A joint study by the U.S. Departments of Energy and Agriculture estimated that 1.4 billion tons of biomass are potentially available from a variety of sources across the U.S. Roughly one-third of that is from agricultural residues, one third from energy crops, and one-third from forests. To put this into context, if all of this material were available and converted into ethanol at expected conversion rates, biomass would provide enough energy to replace 70 percent of the gasoline consumed today. A key question is whether it is wisest to convert this energy source into liquid fuels or to use it directly for power and heat energy. (See related article on biomass applications below.)
An integral part of the “Billion Ton” study included the development of new energy crops grown specifically for energy production, like fast-growing hybrid trees and grasses. NRRI, in a cooperative program with Minnesota’s forest products and energy industries, is actively breeding and field testing new poplar hybrids for potential application as energy crops. Due to the national leadership position of the NRRI in this area, the NRRI has recently partnered with the SunGrant Initiative, a federal energy program, to further the development of energy crops. Nitrogen fertilizer is one of the most important components of achieving high yields of agricultural crops. However, nitrogen is produced from natural gas, linking it directly to fluctuations in natural gas prices. New hybrids must be developed that maximize production of biomass per unit of nitrogen input. Unlike most other major nutrients used in agriculture, nitrogen is not captured in ash after combustion. So while other nutrients can be recycled by applying ash on croplands, nitrogen is potentially a high cost input. Tree crops are particularly efficient at converting nutrients into biomass and NRRI continues to work to improve these crops.
Geothermal energy is stored in the earth’s crust. It is distributed between the crust and the fluids that exist in fractures, pores, and cavities within the crust. Every second, vast amounts of heat are transferred from the mantle and molten core of the earth through the crust. Currently, some of this heat is captured and used for both heat and power generation in areas where the earth’s hot mantel approaches the surface of the earth in localized shallow depths (e.g., Iceland, Yellowstone National Park, California).
Recovering this energy involves extracting heat from fluids coming from some depth via coupled transport processes to an appropriate heat exchange device, then returning the fluids back into the earth, replenishing the used fluids. This technique can be used for both power generation and space heating. Energy capture using enhanced geothermal technologies can be accomplished at depths over 6 km (3.7 miles) depending on the crust rock structures and rock permeability. It could become a very significant source of future alternative energy, a recent MIT study indicates.
NRRI has the capability to more effectively map the geothermal potential in Minnesota. Recent information has indicated that the heat maps currently being used to estimate the potential for this resource for our state may be in error. NRRI is proposing to expand the data points using exploration drill holes and water wells to get more comprehensive temperature readings.
The tipping point for America’s energy independence will start with battery-powered cars. While they may be too expensive now for the average customer, vehicles like the Chevy Volt are becoming available. Unlike current hybrid vehicles, such as the Toyota Prius, plug-ins have greater electrical storage capacity which allows them to go further exclusively on electrical power—20 to 40 miles per day. The graph below shows that if we can provide some other alternative (like electric transportation) for commuting, we could see a dramatic drop in petroleum consumption.
As we witnessed in 2008, when Americans reduce fuel consumption by even a small amount, the price drops dramatically. With federal leadership to fund research, plug-in hybrids could reduce consumption considerably.
A key question remains… if a very inexpensive electric commuting vehicle—such as India’s Reva—could be developed for short trips (under 20 miles) that could be recharged at home or work to extend its range, how would this impact transportation fuel needs? Across the globe, countries are evaluating the potential of electricity. Project Better Place in Israel, for example, is working to build an electric car network for sustainable transportation.
Electric transportation is extremely efficient when compared to an internal combustion engine. Recent NRRI analysis shows that an electrically-driven vehicle has the potential to be twice as efficient when compared to an internal combustion engine using liquid fuel. Our comparison found that while one ton of biomass converted to cellulosic ethanol and electricity could provide enough energy for 2,550 miles of ethanol-fueled transportation, that same ton of biomass converted to electricity could power a vehicle for roughly 6,000 miles. Government and industrial research worldwide is focused on developing energy storage technology (batteries or ultra-capacitors) to make this a reality.
Of Minnesota’s 13 gigawatts of electrical generation, 5.5 gigawatts are coal-based, according to the U.S. Department of Energy. The bulk of coal used for electricity is reduced to a fine powder, and then blown into a combustion unit to produce steam for a turbine generator. Torrefaction is a new technology developed in Europe that partially carbonizes biomass, making it moisture-free and friable. It can then be used as a complete, or more likely partial, replacement for coal in pulverized coal facilities. Torrefaction could be applied to a variety of materials, both woody and herbaceous, if technically and economically feasible.
An intriguing possibility is the production of “green electrons” through combustion of torrified biomass to supply power for plug-in electric vehicles. If batteries are developed to make plug-ins cost effective, electric vehicles could be seamlessly integrated into the existing electrical grid by utilizing off-peak electricity generation. Currently, electrical demand drops 30 percent from peak usage times to off-peak (10 p.m. to 6 a.m.). The potential reserve in production capacity of Minnesota’s 5.5 gigawatts of coal power is estimated to be 1.7 gigawatts—enough to drive three million vehicles a total of 18,000 miles per year (based on an efficiency of 4 miles/kwh).
Using thermogravimetric techniques, NRRI’s Coleraine Lab is conducting research to evaluate processing parameters for optimal production of torrified biomass. Characteristics such as processing temperature, biomass particle size, and residence time are important factors to optimize production of this material. This information will be used to assess the technical and economic feasibility of using biomass as an ultra-clean coal substitute.
A significant amount of Minnesota’s transportation needs could be met through full utilization of the existing power production system, with very little additional investment to modify the existing coal-based systems. The keys are the capacity and sustainability of the forest and agricultural land base for biomass production, and economics. NRRI is actively involved in assessing this very issue.
Some take-away messages are clear:
Direct combustion to gasification and conversion to liquid fuels, or biological conversion to liquid fuels and chemicals, are some of the many potential uses of biomass. NRRI is examining various conversion issues using its gasification characterization facility and downdraft gasifier. NRRI scientists are also examining how the material can be prepared for more efficient conversion processes.
One of the most immediate applications of biomass energy is pelletized fuels to replace high-priced energy sources such as propane and heating oil. Heating oil and propane can cost as much as twice that of pellets per unit of usable heat. Most users of higher priced fuels are located in rural areas where natural gas is not available. Pellets or other densified fuels such as briquettes, can be used in a variety of applications—heating homes and public buildings, such as schools, as well as other industrial applications. Growth of the densified fuel industry would increase employment in the logging sector, an industry hard hit by recent downturns in the forest products industry in the northern parts of the state. Conversion efficiencies in excess of 92 percent using this type of fuel are now widely produced in modern European furnace designs on both commercial and residential scale.
The use of starches and sugars to produce ethanol through fermentation has been done for centuries. However, the growth of the ethanol fuel industry has taken place recently with 17 corn ethanol plants constructed in the last decade in Minnesota. These plants are located primarily in southern Minnesota but as far north as the Central Minnesota Ethanol Cooperative in Little Falls. In total, these plants are expected to produce roughly one billion gallons of ethanol annually. The development of the corn ethanol industry has contributed to job growth in the state and the industry has been a boon to the rural economy. However, the industry has been hit hard by high commodity prices, both corn and natural gas. At this time, low fuel prices are a challenge to the ethanol industry and improvements in technology and reducing processing costs are a high priority for the industry. One such technology—gasification—has been installed at the Chippewa Valley Ethanol Cooperative to reduce dependence on natural gas by using local sources of biomass.
NRRI is working to improve the energy efficiency and revenue potential of corn-based ethanol production by converting residues from the process (Dried Distillers Grains and Solubles) to high-value animal feed, additional liquid fuels, and other valuable chemical products.
The technology that has captured the bulk of national attention is cellulosic ethanol and research is underway worldwide. Approximately half of all plants are comprised of cellulose. While cellulose is technically a sugar molecule, it is not amenable to biological breakdown by most organisms. Recent developments in biotechnology have made it possible to break cellulose into simpler sugars which then can be fermented like corn ethanol. Through focused research, the cost of enzymes to break down cellulose has dropped significantly. Companies such as Mascoma and Verenium are pursuing this biochemical technology.
Another technology exists that holds promise to produce ethanol and other liquid fuels from biomass. The thermochemical process involves gasification and subsequent conversion of the gas to liquid fuels. It was developed in Germany to make synthetic diesel fuel during WWII. Sasol, a South African company, is currently a leader in the commercial application of this technology operating plants since 1979. This industry was developed in response to Apartheid and the need to produce liquid fuels from domestic sources, in this case, coal. Thermochemical processes use metal catalysts such as iron, cobalt and nickel, to reform the short carbon chains resulting from gasification into longer-chained hydrocarbons that can be subsequently processed to produce gasoline, diesel fuel and ethanol. As a result, the gasification, or thermochemical approach, may lead to the production of a wide variety of fuels.
The NRRI is cooperating with the University of North Dakota's Energy and Environmental Research Center to test their mobile gasification system that converts biomass to methanol and, potentially, to diesel fuel. This project is supported by Xcel Energy's Renewable Development Fund and will be tested at a site in northern Minnesota beginning in the fall of 2009.
In some situations, there are opportunities to locate a biomass combustion facility such that both heat and electricity are used locally. Combined Heat and Power systems are unique in that they can achieve very high energy conversion efficiencies, typically as high as 80 percent, because they use all heat sources. CHP systems installed in Minnesota include KODA Energy at Shakopee, St. Paul District Energy and the Laurentian Energy Authority systems at Virginia and Hibbing. CHP systems use a variety of energy sources including agricultural biomass and wood.
Waste heat from various industrial operations may also be used to lower overall energy demands. Specific technologies that use low temperature waste heat are available for drying incoming raw materials for torrefaction of biomass and for direct power generation using organic Rakine cycle or Kalina cycle engines. The research thrust for the future is to increase overall efficiency by capturing as much available energy as possible.
Bridge number 5961 was a 120 foot-long problem. Steam on the river and from a nearby paper mill result in an icy bridge deck when the cold air hits, causing accidents. And with almost 6,000 vehicles crossing the bridge daily, that’s a real problem.
NRRI researcher Larry Zanko offered a local solution— taconite tailings. This waste rock from the taconite pellet making process, is being tested in a new, high-friction bridge deck surface treatment on 5961 to improve its “grip-ability.” The bridge is on Highway 11, just east of International Falls, Minn.
“I’m looking forward to seeing how well this works through the winter snow plow season,” said Zanko. “Mn/DOT will be watching it closely and we’ll evaluate its wear characteristics, but I expect this to work well.”
Extensive NRRI research on taconite waste rock as an aggregate product is proving valuable for road repair projects and, in this case, increased driver safety. Tailings offer a long list of benefits: it’s already blasted and crushed, it’s hard and angular, and it’s dark-colored so it absorbs solar heat to help melt snow and ice.
“Our goal is to find value-added uses and markets for taconite aggregate since it’s readily available on the Iron Range, and a project like this helps us do that,” said Zanko.
The aggregate adheres to the bridge surface with AccuFlex, a castor oil-based road repair compound made by a locally owned company. It cures within a couple of hours, and is odorless, durable, and environmentally friendly.
“Normally we use fractured flint from Oklahoma for bridge decks,” explained AccuFlex CFO Gordy Carlson. “It’s very hard and angular, similar to taconite tailings. But flint is light in color. Because the tailings are dark, they’ll absorb solar energy to melt snow and ice, which is great in this part of the country.”
An added bonus, of course, is not trucking rock thousands of miles.
A similar demonstration project on a slippery bridge in Colorado three years ago is holding up well, Zanko said. “On that first project, we learned how important the prep work is before the application. We also know that dry conditions are required when we apply the coating and the rock,” he said.
Mn/DOT bridge engineer Pat Huston said they will talk with the plow drivers and watch how well the product holds up. They will also keep track of any accidents to compare whether or not the new bridge deck increased safety.
“This is a homegrown product, so that’s good,” said Huston. “And for such a remote bridge, I was surprised at how much traffic is on it. We’ll watch it, and hopefully we’ll see a decrease in accidents.”
By Andria Peters, Office of the Vice President for Research, University of Minnesota
Imagine waking up to a destroyed garden or a devastated field of crops. The culprits? Diseases and other pests like deer, mice, rabbits, and insects. It’s a fairly common occurrence now, but a University researcher might have an innovative solution to give plants a fighting chance.
Systemic Plant Conditioning Composition (SPCC) is the brain-child of NRRI scientist Tom Levar. Essentially, this biomedical delivery system is designed to protect plants from the inside.
SPCC employs chemical agents called osmolytes (substances that affect osmosis) to distribute molecules through the microscopic pores of a plant’s leaves, stems, and roots.
“Just as we deliver medicines across skin membranes, we can strengthen plants by delivering small molecules of substances beneficial to plants through their surfaces,” Levar said.
The best part is that it’s safe. SPCC requires no genetic modification. It also lasts longer because it works from within, bypassing soil and ground water contamination frequently encountered with traditional topical methods like insecticides and fungicides.
Levar explains that the advantages aren’t solely environmental.
“The value of this technology lies in the realities of improved efficiencies of crop management, which translate to economic benefits," he said. “SPCC could also be used to improve the quality and nutrition of food crops, and potentially deliver medicines through staples such as rice or grain.”
The University has filed for a patent on SPCC, and Levar looks positively to the future and licensing possibilities to “fully realize the practical and commercial benefits of this technology.”
“I hope to refine SPCC and support the development of intellectual property at NRRI,” Levar said. “Our institute is a tremendous incubator of technologies and our staff has continually demonstrated their effectiveness to serve the needs of our constituents through hard work and creativity.”
As far back as 900 B.C., the Vikings of Norway kept fence posts from rotting by burning the surface of the wood.
The best ideas, it seems, stand the test of time.
Today, NRRI research on heat-treating Minnesota red pine could mean that regional window and door manufacturers don’t have to truck in wood from the western U.S.—with additional environmental advantages, as well.
As many homeowners know, wood exposed to moist air expands and contracts, causing painted surfaces to peel and crack. Covering the wood with vinyl is an option, but it can be expensive. The wood can also be chemically treated, but toxic chemicals are not a good option for the environment.
Intensive research over the past 15 years in Finland by VTT Technical Research Centre and the Institute of Environmental Technology resulted in an industrial scale heat-treatment process called Thermowood. Now, Pat Donahue, NRRI forest products co-director, is bringing this tried and true idea to Minnesota with funding from the USDA Wood Utilization Research Program.
“The window and door industry came here because of the availability of white pine,” Donahue explained. “But when the white pine was gone they had to ship it in from the west. If this industry can get their wood locally again, it would have a very positive economic impact.”
Here’s the basic process: the wood is heated in a two-part process to 374° – 482° F while being protected with steam. Once it is “cooked,” the wood is more stable in changing humidity, has improved thermal insulation properties, and is decay resistant.
Donahue is sending Minnesota red pine to Finland where the wood will be thermally treated. It will then be shipped back to NRRI for testing to specific window and door industry standards.
“Red pine has a lot of sticky resin in it,” he said. “This process fully cures the resins so the wood doesn’t bleed. It eliminates the hemicellulose, or sugars, where decay gets its foothold in wood. When the lignin in the cellulose wall softens, water’s ability to affect the wood is greatly reduced.”
With new housing construction down 25 percent from 2006 to 2007, related industries are also feeling the pinch. Donahue hopes this wood treatment process will help Minnesota’s window and door manufacturers stay competitive in a slow economy.
Just by living the way we live, people have changed the way water flows.” Valerie Brady, NRRI aquatics scientist, is talking about stormwater. You know… the water that flows off your roof, through your gutters, down your driveway and into the street after a good rain.
Her point is that because of our homes and buildings, the water doesn’t soak into the ground (like it would if the buildings were gone) and instead, flows like a deluge into nearby streams. Those streams—here long before we were—haven’t adjusted to this excess, so the banks erode, the dirt muddies the water, the fish and other water critters struggle, and the ecosystem is out of whack.
To help scientists and the rest of us understand this problem better, NRRI is conducting an experiment to figure out exactly what homeowners can do that will make a measurable impact on keeping excess stormwater runoff out of nearby streams. They did this by identifying a neighborhood with stormwater that flows into Amity Creek. The people living there were asked to help move science forward, take stormwater pressure off an Amity Creek tributary, and hopefully fix some pesky water problems of their own.
Once they embarked on the project, the scientists learned that people do care about this issue. A whole 72 percent of the households contacted agreed to take a survey that would show just how much people already know—or don’t—about stormwater issues and their local streams. Surprisingly, over 50 percent of the respondents didn’t know there is a stream at the end of their street, or weren’t sure. And 84 percent didn’t know that Amity Creek is listed as an “impaired stream” by the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency for muddiness. Fortunately, 76 percent were aware of the difference between stormwater and sanitary sewer water, and that they are treated differently. And 79 percent were interested in learning more about the stormwater management project the scientists planned for the neighborhood.
Then the team of scientists held a public meeting. Brady, with colleagues from Minnesota Sea Grant and Minnesota’s Lake Superior Coastal Program, presented the gathered crowd with information about their unique neighborhood stormwater issues and unveiled their experimental plan to measure stormwater “fixes.”
“The fix is hard, both because it’s all about how we live on the land, and because the land up here, with its clay and bedrock on steep hillsides, doesn’t give us a break,” said Brady.
Next the scientists want to find out how effective landscaping changes are to slowing down the water. The team measured how much stormwater is running off three neighborhood streets and found that each two-block stretch generated 300,000 to 400,000 gallons of runoff during a June 1.5 inch rainstorm. That’s enough to fill a football field with a foot of water.
This spring, one of those streets will install things that slow down stormwater run-off—rain gardens, more trees and shrubs, rain barrels, grassy swales, and rock trenches. Measurements of stormwater run-off after the “fixes” are in place (and in comparison with the streets that don’t make any changes) will show whether or not the extra effort helps.
“These are very water-aware people,” said Brady of the experimental neighborhood. “They’re getting wet basements, and sump pumps are putting the water in their yard where it’s seeping into downhill neighbor’s basements. They understand that the water has to go somewhere, and they want to do what they can to help.”
It’s our front door—the portal to who we are and what we do. NRRI’s Web site has been updated and upgraded and we’re pleased to welcome you to it.
The front page will host regularly changing stories on Featured Research along with profiles of our diverse and talented NRRI Team. Quick Links will take you to our most sought-after sites, like LakeSuperiorStreams.org, Minnesota Worm Watch, and Canada Lynx in Minnesota.
Want an overview of NRRI? Read “About Us” or view our “Organization Structure.” Use the search tool to lead you to specific areas of research.
Still want to know more? Contact Public Relations Manager June Kallestad at 218-720-4300 or by email to June Kallestad.
Michael Lalich, director
Center for Water and the Environment, Gerald Niemi, director
Center for Applied Research and Technology Development, Donald Fosnacht, director
Center for Economic Development, Elaine Hansen, director
NRRI Now
June Kallestad, editor/writer
Trish Sodahl, graphic design
The Natural Resources Research Institute was established by the Minnesota Legislature in 1983 to foster economic development of Minnesota's natural resources in an environmentally sound manner to promote private sector employment.